Kainat Ali Baloch
Liberalism, as a political and philosophical doctrine, prioritizes individual liberty, egalitarianism, and the preservation of civil rights. It advocates for individuals’ rights to pursue personal development and self-determination within a democratic framework. Grounded in Enlightenment principles, liberalism has evolved to address contemporary concerns such as social equity, economic accessibility, and environmental conservation. By promoting the rule of law and limitations on institutional power, it aims to safeguard human dignity while fostering open discourse and pluralistic perspectives. Striking a balance between progressive reforms and respect for established norms and social cohesion, liberalism enables societies to navigate rapid changes without compromising fundamental principles. Through its commitment to fairness, inclusivity, and progress, liberalism fosters a comprehensive society that upholds individual expression, civic responsibility, and collective prosperity. Embracing diversity and promoting mutual respect, liberalism forms the foundation for policy deliberations by encouraging dialogue, innovative problem-solving, and a shared commitment to advancement and equality across all sectors of society.
Liberalism constitutes a pervasive concept in Western political thought and practice. Certain scholars regard it as a symbol of modernity, an aspiration, or even the ultimate telos of history. Others perceive it as an unfolding catastrophe, representing either the inexorable logic of capitalism or a descent into moral relativism. For many, perhaps the majority, it represents ambivalence—the ideological necessity for a reasonably comfortable existence in affluent democratic nations, considered the least unfavorable option. However, the task of defining liberalism remains challenging. Across various scholarly discourses, it is interpreted in diverse and often contradictory ways: as a besieged avant-garde project and the essence of modernity itself, a nuanced normative political philosophy and a dominant mode of governance, the justifying ideology of unrestricted capitalism and the most valuable ideological resource for its limitation. Self-identified liberals have advocated for extensive welfare states and their dismantling; the imperial civilizing mission and its vehement condemnation; the necessity of social justice and its outright rejection; the continuation of the sovereign state and its transcendence; massive global wealth redistribution and the stark inequalities of the current order. Given this, Shklar’s observation that it is an “all-purpose word” is unsurprising, as liberalism has become the overarching category of Western political discourse. There are several responses to this “overextension.” One approach is to simply disregard it, employing the term as if its meaning were self-evident. Common across the humanities and social sciences, this unreflective tendency generates significant confusion. Another approach involves “boundary work”—defining and regulating the discourse (Thomas Gieryn (1983). A prevalent methodology for documenting liberal history entails presenting it as a narrative of ascent or decline, accomplishment or disillusionment. One established perspective laments the erosion of initial authenticity. For instance, Leo Strauss decried the transition from virtuous “ancient” liberalism (reaching its apogee in Athens) to corrupted forms of “modern” liberalism (commencing with Machiavelli). Similarly, Sheldon Wolin posited that twentieth-century liberalism had regrettably abandoned its early skeptical expression (Leo Strauss (1968); Sheldon Wolin (2004 Certain neoconservative scholars have endeavored to adopt the philosophy, collaborating with Irving Kristol to “reexamine the original foundations of liberal thought and energy in an effort to correct the misinterpreted version” (Irving Kristol (1983).
The political philosophy of liberalism advocates for the reduction of governmental control over its citizens. It promotes the rights of individuals to pursue their own interests and ideas, provided these do not impinge upon the freedoms of others within society. Proponents of liberalism contend that democratic nations exert greater influence than authoritarian regimes. While democracies may engage in various conflicts, they posit that a democratic state will not initiate hostilities against another country sharing its ideological orientation. This concept derives from Kantian philosophy. Critics, however, argue that this principle could potentially be utilized by democratic nations as a justification for aggression against non-democratic states (Chan, 1997:59).
Economic liberalism, a philosophy predicated on free market capitalism, minimal government intervention, and individual property rights, posits that market competition and personal initiative are fundamental drivers of economic efficiency and growth. This ideology, rooted in classical liberal thought, gained prominence through Adam Smith’s introduction of the “invisible hand” concept, which postulates that markets naturally tend towards optimal outcomes. The principles of economic liberalism were further developed by economists such as Milton Friedman and Friedrich Hayek, who advocated for deregulation, unrestricted trade, and reduced state control over economic affairs. These tenets continue to exert significant influence on contemporary economic policies (Smith, 1776; Friedman, 1962; Hayek, 1944).
In the field of international relations, liberalism stands as a prominent theoretical framework that underscores the importance of collaboration, nonviolence, and worldwide advancement. The following are its fundamental tenets:
1: Diplomatic Cooperation as an Alternative to Military Conflict: Nation-states can employ diplomatic channels and international organizations to address and resolve disputes, thereby avoiding the necessity of armed conflict (Keohane & Nye, 1977).
2: Trade Relations Mitigate Armed Conflicts: Nations with robust economic ties exhibit a reduced propensity for military engagements, as armed conflict disrupts their mutual economic advantages (Angell, 1910).
3: Democratic Peace Theory: It posits that nations with democratic systems of governance are less inclined to engage in armed conflicts with one another, suggesting that democratic institutions foster peaceful international relations. (Doyle, 1986)
4: Global Organizations Play a Crucial Role: International entities such as the UN, WTO, and EU facilitate transnational cooperation and promote stability through the establishment of guidelines and the resolution of disputes between nations (Keohane, 1984).
5: Human Rights and Global Governance – The fundamental tenets of liberalism encompass the advocacy of human rights, the promotion of international law, and the support for initiatives aimed at establishing an equitable global system, as exemplified by the Fourteen Points Speech. This perspective is integral to the concept of global governance and the protection of individual liberties (Wilson, 1918).
1; Classical Liberalism (17th–19th Century): Classical liberalism emerged during the Enlightenment, emphasizing individual liberty, limited governmental authority, and free-market economics. Philosophers such as John Locke propounded theories of natural rights and the social contract, which subsequently influenced the development of democratic governance. Adam Smith advocated for free-market capitalism, positing that economies function optimally with minimal government intervention (Locke, 1689; Smith, 1776).
2 Liberal Internationalism (19th–20th Century): Liberal ideologies expanded beyond domestic governance to encompass global politics. Immanuel Kant introduced the concept of “perpetual peace” predicated on republican governments and international cooperation. Following World War, I, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proposed the establishment of the League of Nations, with the objective of preventing armed conflict through diplomatic means and collective security measures. Although the League ultimately proved unsuccessful, these principles significantly influenced the formation of the United Nations in the aftermath of World War II (Kant, 1795; Wilson, 1918).
3: Neoliberalism and Institutionalism (Late 20th Century–Present): In the late 20th century and continuing to the present, neoliberalism and institutionalism have gained prominence as globalization has intensified. These theoretical approaches emphasize the significance of economic interconnectedness, open markets, and the role of global organizations such as the World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, and United Nations in maintaining international stability. Scholars such as Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye have elucidated the function of international institutions in facilitating cooperation among nations, even within a competitive global environment. This development has expanded liberal thought beyond its traditional focus on democratic systems and market economies to encompass global governance structures and economic strategies (Keohane, 1984; Nye, 1990).
The concept of liberalism has undergone significant transformations since its inception in the 18th and 19th centuries. Initially, it focused on individual liberties, unregulated markets, and limited governmental power, as propounded by intellectuals such as Adam Smith and John Locke. During the 20th century, economic liberalism gained prominence through the works of Milton Friedman and Friedrich Hayek, who advocated for open trade, reduced regulation, and global economic integration. In contemporary times, while liberalism continues to shape global policies, it faces opposition from increasing protectionist measures, government intervention, and economic disparities. Although classical liberalism emphasized minimal state interference, modern liberal thought often seeks to achieve equilibrium between free-market principles and social initiatives to address societal inequalities. Despite ongoing controversies, liberalism remains a prevailing ideology that influences economic and political frameworks worldwide, adapting to current challenges while preserving its fundamental tenets.
(Kainat Ali Baloch,Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Selçuk University Konya, Turkiye.)
